Vol. 24 No. 2 (2025): Mapana Journal of Sciences
Review Articles

A Review of Nano-Structured Thermites and Explosives: Synthesis and Emerging Applications

Agin P
Department of Forensic Science, AJK College of Arts and Science, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Ashisha A Aloysius
Department of Forensic Science, AJK College of Arts and Science, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
Bio
Dhaneesh K John
Department of Forensic Science, AJK College of Arts and Science, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

Published 2025-07-22

Keywords

  • Nanoparticles,
  • Nanothermites,
  • Pyrotechnics,
  • Green Synthesis

Abstract

Lead-based primary explosives are highly common in the military, mining and pyrotechnics. However, lead is non-biodegradable and poses a serious threat to the environment and living beings. Lead is a potent neurotoxin that causes organ damage and affects cognitive development in humans. It contaminates the air, water and soil, thereby affecting the flora and fauna through bioaccumulation and food chain contamination. It is also notorious for degrading soil fertility and biodiversity. The search for a greener alternative landed on nanostructured materials, fuelling considerable research in this domain. Although their large-scale manufacturing is challenging, these materials promise enhanced performance, safety and reliability over existing systems. The SFE method has been identified as a major breakthrough in facilitating mass-scale manufacturing of such explosive nanoparticles with decent productivity. Coating these nanoparticles with nanothermites resulted in a benign alternative with improved performance over traditional lead-based explosives, called NSTEX. This eliminates the risk of lead contamination while also improving the explosive performance. Despite the success of this system, stabilising these mixtures into operational systems has remained a challenge, hindering its application. A breakthrough in this aspect could be a significant step forward in greener and safer pyrotechnics for the future.

References

  1. Polis M (2022) Mixtures of nanometric thermites and secondary explosives versus primary explosives. Materiały Wysokoenergetyczne, 14.
  2. Risse B, Spitzer D, Hassler D, Schnell F, Comet M, Pichot V, Muhr H (2012) Continuous formation of submicron energetic particles by the flash-evaporation technique. Chem Eng J 203:158–165. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.07.032
  3. Comet M, Martin C, Schnell F, Spitzer D (2019) Energetic Nanoparticles and Nanomaterials for Future Defense Applications. Human Factors and Mechanical Engineering for Defense and Safety 3: 1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41314-019-0016-6
  4. Polis M, Stolarczyk A, Szydło K, Lisiecka B, Procek M, Sławski S, Jarosz T (2024) Novel NSTEX system based on Ti/CuO/NC nanothermite doped with NTO. Energies, 17(15), 3675. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17153675
  5. Fahd A, BaranovskyA, Dubois C, Chaouki J, Elbasuney S, Shokry S (2023) Thrust characteristics of nano-carbon/Al/oxygenated salt nanothermites for micro-energetic applications. Defence Technology 30: 55-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2023.03.009
  6. Lobry E. Berthe J-E, Spitzer D (2021) Spray flash evaporation SFE process: Identification of the driving parameters on evaporation to tune particle size and morphology. Chemical Engineering Science 231:116-307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2020.116307
  7. Comet M, Martin C, Klaumünzer M, Schnell F, Spitzer D (2015) Energetic nanocomposites for detonation initiation in high explosives without primary explosives. Appl Phys Lett 107:243108. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4938139
  8. Stepanov, V., Krasnoperov, L., Elkina, I. and Zhang, X. (2005), Production of Nanocrystalline RDX by Rapid Expansion of Supercritical Solutions. Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics, 30: 178-183. https://doi.org/10.1002/prep.200500002
  9. Spitzer, D., Risse, B., Schnell, F. et al. Continuous engineering of nano-cocrystals for medical and energetic applications. Sci Rep 4, 6575 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep06575
  10. Klaumünzer M, Hübner J, Spitzer D (2016) Production of energetic nanomaterials by Spray Flash Evaporation. World Acad Sci Eng Technol 10:1191–1195
  11. Séve A, Pichot V, Schnell F, Spitzer D (2017) Trinitrotoluene nanostructuring by Spray Flash Evaporation process. PropellantsExplos Pyrotech 42:1051–1056. https://doi.org/10.1002/prep.201700024
  12. Risse B, Schnell F, Spitzer D (2014) Synthesis and desensitization of nano-β-HMX. Propellants Explos Pyrotech 39:397–401. https://doi.org/10.1002/prep.201300161
  13. Deckert-Gaudig T, Pichot V, Spitzer D, Deckert V (2017) High resolution Raman spectroscopy for the nanostructural characterization of explosive nanodiamond precursors. ChemPhysChem 18: 175–178. https://doi.org/10.1002/cphc.201601276
  14. Spitzer D, Risse B, Schnell F, Pichot V, Klaumünzer M, Schaefer MR (2014) Continuous engineering of nano-cocrystals for medical and energetic applications. Sci Rep 4. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep06575
  15. Sundaram D, Yang V, Yetter RA (2017) Metal-based nanoenergetic materials: Synthesis, properties, and applications. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61: 293-365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2017.02.002
  16. Aumann CE, Skofronick GL, Martin JA (1995) Oxidation behavior of aluminum nanopowders. J Vacuum Sci Technol B; 13:1178.
  17. Schoenitz M, Ward T, Dreizin EL (2003) Preparation of Energetic Metastable Nano-Composite Materials by Arrested Reactive Milling. MRS Proceedings. 800:AA2.6. https://doi.org/10.1557/PROC-800-AA2.6
  18. Comet M, Vidick G, Schnell F, Suma Y, Baps B, Spitzer D (2015) Sulfates-based nanothermites: an expanding horizon for metastable interstitial composites. Angew Chem Int Ed 54:4458–4462. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201410634
  19. Prentice D, Pantoya ML, Gash AE (2006) Combustion wave speeds of sol−gel-synthesized tungsten trioxide and nano-aluminum: the effect of impurities on flame propagation. Energy Fuel 20:2370–2376. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef060210i
  20. Levitas VI, Asay BW, Son SF, Pantoya M (2007) Mechanochemical mechanism for fast reaction of metastable inter-molecular composites based on dispersion of liquid metal. J Appl Phys 101:083524. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2720182
  21. Levitas VI, Asay BW, Son SF, Pantoya M (2006) Melt dispersion mechanism for fast reaction of nanothermites. Appl Phys Lett 89: 071909. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2335362
  22. Martin C, Comet M, Schnell F, Spitzer D (2017) Nanothermite with meringue-like morphology: from loose powder to ultra-porous objects. J Vis Exp. https://doi.org/10.3791/56479
  23. Comet M, Martin C, Schnell F, Spitzer D (2017) Nanothermite foams: from nanopowder to object. Chem Eng J 316:807–812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2017.02.009
  24. Sullivan KT, Kuntz JD, Gash AE (2012) Electrophoretic deposition and mechanistic studies of nano-Al/CuO thermites. J Appl Phys 112:024316. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4737464